NEW TECHNIQUES

PREPARATION OF LOW COST VISUAL AIDS
IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY[A1] FOR TEACHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
The Context
A nation’s development potential depends upon its ability to continuously educate its population and its ability to create armies of skilled manpower. In particular, use of Information Technology (IT) in acquiring knowledge and skill has become an essential element in education and training. These IT elements in the educational process have magical effects.
Higher education without the support of IT makes the lives of learner and teachers equally difficult. A nation’s intellectual strength depends on IT support. The use of computing and communication technology to enhance the efficacy of transaction and productivity is the driving force in this new era of social and economic transformation in the new society called Information Society.
A strong IT infrastructure can give an institution a competitive advantage for the best students and faculty and an advantage in competition for absorbing external research grants to execute studies, research etc. in a short time and with great resolution. The quality of an institution’s environment for digital information storage and retrieval has, for any disciplines, become more important than the institution’s conventional, library resources in print media.

Virtually every economic sector that is labour intensive has managed to improve productivity through the use of technology except education. Faculty/student ratios in higher education have changed significantly in more than 50 years. The most advanced technology in common use in the classroom today in our country is the overhead projector, and it took nearly three decades to migrate from the national level training institute to the classroom. Institutions like UGC, IGNOU, CIET have begun to transact curriculum on DD 1 but the ETV programmes are mostly of enrichment type and not as per the demand of the students. It is unlikely that IT will have a major impact on teaching and learning if the current paradigm for instruction changes.
CONCEPT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY: Information science is " the science that investigates the properties and behaviours of information, the forces governing the flow of information, and the means of processing information for optimum accessibility and usability. The field is derived from those related to mathematics, logic, linguistic, psychology, computer technology, graphic arts, management and other fields".
IT implies telecommunications involving a combination of computers, networks, satellites, telephones, radio, television and the like. IT resources involve not only hardware (equipment) but also software (programmes), people, education, government and association/collaboration resources. Application of IT to education involves many disciplines related to computers in handling, processing, management, automation and communication of information in the broader cultural and economic context of a society.
IT with reference to "technology in education", encompasses one or more of the following :
* Media and AV communication, eg. alternative instructional delivery systems such as Radio, ETV, etc.
* Vocational training tools, such as CBT (Computer Based Training), CAD (computer-aided design), etc.;
* Computers and computer-based systems for instructional delivery and management, e.g. CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) etc.
* Internet/web based education e.g. not only educational information with text, graphics, video but also courses are offered by various web sites.
While IT refers primarily to the components of media, computer tools and instructional uses of computer based systems, Instructional Technology lies at the core and in the starting point.
UNIVERSITY ROLE IN TRAINING ON IT : What are universities doing to popularise IT among students of Education? It is difficult to compare one university with another in this matter. Because there is a great variation in philosophy, strategy, and funding among the universities, particularly in teacher education. However, universities involved in preparing teachers, are supposed to apply IT in effective classroom transaction, storage, retrieval of information and evaluation. This is applicable equally for preservice teacher training, as well as continuing education for teachers.
Of primary concern to the University is the issue of specifically what technology and technology applications teachers ought to learn. The issue of what to teach about technology is complicated, for several reasons. Should teachers in training colleges learn about IT as content, or technology as instructional tools?
It is argued by some that the most important thing the university can do for preservice and inservice teachers is to help them understand the implications of technology developments in general on the perspectives and lifestyles of aspiring teachers. That is, the university ought to teach aspiring teachers IT as content as well as IT as instructional tool. Underlying this perspective of IT as content is the belief that IT developments are bringing about not simply evolutionary changes in society, but profound and revolutionary changes.
Some argue that the university must train them mainly to use IT as instructional tools. That is, teachers need to gain competence in how to apply technology in teaching and learning activities. It is argued that trained teachers need to understand Instructional Technology first. It is not just hardware, or software but is rather a process, a way of approaching teaching and learning.
At the moment, technology in many schools and colleges mean computer technology. In the recent past technology meant television or language laboratories. From today’s perspective, it appears that new information technology systems, i.e. multimedia, telecommunication, videoconferencing, computer conferencing and the like are becoming more pervasive and providing. These new technology systems are likely to require new kinds of skills on the part of students seeking to use them, and in turn will require new skills on the part of teachers to manage the technologies as important components of teaching and learning environments. Given these changes in the technology base, what do we teach trainee teachers today that will stand them in good stead for the classrooms of tomorrow?
STRUCTURAL ISSUES: The structural issues involved in discussion of technology training for preservice and inservice teachers might be summarised by the following questions : (i) Where in the teacher preparation curriculum will training about technology application be lodged? (2) Who will do the teaching about technology? (3) How will this content be taught?
The ‘where’ question might be further subdivided. Should whatever content is to be taught be infused in existing ‘teaching methods’ or should a separate courses be provided, focusing on information technology applications? The curriculum for teaching technology is made further complicated by the broader debate over the proper form and substance of teacher education in general.
The question of where in the curriculum IT training ought to be lodged impacts on the question of ‘who’ should teach that content. Should technology application material be taught by instructional technologists, educational psychologists, discipline method specialists, or computer scientists? The curricular location of technology training says much about an institution’s perspectives on technology applications.
As far as the university is concerned, structural issues of the kind posed above represent potential barriers to effective training/teaching about information technology. Some of the difficulties in solving the ‘who, where’ and how issues are the result of genuine intellectual disagreement among the policy makers.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY CURRICULUM FOR TRAINING ASPIRING SCHOOL TEACHERS: Nearly all education and training of information professionals is carried out at the tertiary level. There are ten groups of subjects and practicum in the present ET curriculum. In the present Teacher Education Curriculum at the secondary level developed by the NCERT is given below:
Unit 1: Concept of educational technology Total time 20 Hours
- Meaning
- Nature
- Functions
- Scope
- Significance of educational technology
Unit 2: Communication process
(a) General theory of communication
- Concept
- Nature
- Process
- Principles
- Components
- Types
- Barriers
- Modes
(b) Classroom communication
- Basic concepts
- Classroom interaction, verbal and non-verbal interaction, interaction patterns, etc.
(c) Effective classroom communication
- Concept
- Criteria
- Tools of evaluation
Unit 3 : Systems approach
- Concept of a system
- Systems approach
- Systems analysis
- Implications for teaching-learning process
Unit 4: Instructional system designing
- Concept
- Component ; physical resources (hardware/software and human resources)
- Their inter-relationships
- Steps of designing an instructional system
Unit 5 : Physical resources of an instructional system
(a) Classifications – Projected/non projected, hardware/software
(b) Hardware – Chalkboard, tape recorder, TV videoscope, instant slide maker, overhead projector, film strip, slide projector, epidiascope, interactive video computer, transparency maker, reprographic equipment, computers.
(c) Software – Scripts, slides, programmes, learning materials, film-strips, transparencies, newspapers, textbooks, chart, maps, models, pictures, computer programmes.
(d) Low-cost support system
- Concept
- Need
- Significance
- Illustrations and techniques of preparation
Unit 6: Use of different media
(a) Principles of using different media (including mass media and other media)
(b) Processes : Selection
- Preparation and planning
- Execution
- Evaluation
(c) Integrating these with the classroom teaching
Unit 7 : Human resources of an instructional system
- Identification of human resources within the school system and outside the school system
- Strategies for developing the following :
Expertise, competencies and teaching,allied skills require (micro- teaching and other skill-based techniques of skill acquisition)
Unit 8 : Management of physical resources
- Source of different material/gadgets/hardware
- Care and maintenance
- Scheduling
- Preparing operational instruction manual for gadgets
- Lay out of educational technology laboratory or audio-visual aids.
Unit 9 : Innovations in educational technology
(a) – Concept
- Significance
- Try-out strategies of an innovation, action research
(b) Recent innovations
- TV and video lessons
- Computer assisted learning
- Interactive video
- Multimedia package
- Language laboratory
Unit 10 : Educational technology – teacher as a change agent
(a) Identifying strengths and weaknesses of instructional material
(b) Determining relative effectiveness of instructional material
(c) Sharing the experiences with others in the system
(d) Strategies of communicating, orienting, motivating others, workshop demonstration, team teaching.

Practicum
Any three of the following activities maybe undertaken:
(i) Tutorial/term paper/symposium
(ii) Developing software – transparencies/programmes learning material/ slides/scripts/scenarios
(iii) Developing self instructional material/support system/learning package, multimedia package or any unit
(iv) Workshop on handling hardware
(v) Preparation of low cost/improvised material
(vi) Conducting a lesson incorporating radio/TV/video, computer/language laboratory and its evaluation.
(vii) Visit to educational technology laboratory/AV hall and its reporting.

The Central Board of Secondary Education has also developed detail syllabus on `Informatics practices’ .

Information Practices
General Objectives
1. To acquire basic knowledge of Information Technology (IT)
2. To learn information processing tools and techniques.
3. To understand (IT) applications in various domains of business.
4. To develop IT vocational appreciation.
1. Information Technology
An Overview
2. Information Technology Tools
3. Information Technology Solutions
Total

a Hands on Experience (4 Exercise)
i. Operating System
ii. Word Processor
iii. Electronic spreadsheet
iv. Database
b. Viva-voce
c. Practical Files
d. Project Report


The content of the curricula for training trainers should take a socio-technical perspective so that trainers can sensitize their trainees in university to some of the contextual issues of IT in the country. Therefore it is suggested that:
* The development of the programmes should receive input from a broad spectrum of the various role players – educationists for methodological content, IT specialists for subject matter and material content, representatives of government for socio-philosophical and policy content as well as specialists in relevant subject areas for contextual issues.
The curriculum should address the need of a practicing teacher. He must have :
* positive attitude to information technology;
* ability to promote ethical and legal behaviour in the use of IT for school and home use;
* ability to meet all basic hardware knowledge and use requirements specified in the classroom;
* ability to apply technology tools to solve a variety of problems for teaching and learning with technology;
* ability to make decisions regarding the use of specific technologies based on empirical research on learning effectiveness;
* ability theories of learning to create instructional course were using a selected authoring tool;
* ability to conduct research on the effectiveness of instructional technology on specified variables of interest for learning, motivation, and/or learning strategies to further the field of IT, and ability to attain a minimum technical ability.
This rapid growth in the use of IT in education has created the need for all teacher education faculty to be proficient in the use and integration of IT into mainstream teacher education programme delivery. Curriculum should focus on the following minimal IT competence which is also the basic survival skill for most teacher educators.
(a) Computer Skill
* keyboarding
* word processing
* creating dbase drawing, graphs, pie chart etc.
* a spreadsheet
* statistical analysis
(b) Basic knowledge of using Authoring Tool for creation of interactive lessons in Multimedia.
(c) Accessing and downloading item from the internet.
(d) Familiarity with e-mail (accessing, sending etc.)
In any programme of training the trainee–teachers must establish cooperation among relevant academic departments. The nature of such cooperation should involve the computer science department and relevant departments in engineering, social sciences, humanities and education. The cooperation should cover areas of teaching, research and curriculum development. This kind of cooperation is needed for evolving the socio-scientific-humanistic paradigmatic integration that is required for the new point of view in IT progammes.
FACULTY DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHER EDUCATORS
The reality is that the bulk of faculty currently engaged in teacher preparation were themselves not prepared to use technologies, nor have updated their knowledge in technology developments. Once again there are notable exceptions to this generalisation. For most faculty in teacher education, however, IT is a mystery or a blur. Young students being prepared by these members of faculty, in an increasing number of cases, are somewhat knowledgeable about IT due to imports from this environments: an intellectual gap of some importance is thus being created. Can universities meet the challenge?
Many members of faculty are yet to appreciate the use of technology for the delivery of instruction because they are not exposed to these prepared. The following are benchmarks to assist in the development of faculty knowledge, skill, and ability :
* ability to master basic IT skills in the area of productivity, multimedia, telecommunication and classroom integration;
* ability to use multimedia as a medium for delivery of class lectures;
* ability to guide students to work collaboratively to make group presentations using IT;
* ablility to enthuse students to use IT for problem-solving tasks.
* ability to introduce new interactive learning package in content related courses relevant to teaching and learning;
* creation of an information newsletter and an Internet home page to reliprocate information with others, etc.
Teacher education programmes can be major catalysts for educational reform by preparing preservice and inservice teachers to effectively IT in classroom through specialised preservice courses and inservice training. Teacher education must model the integration of IT throughout the teacher education programme.
CONCLUSION : Can teacher education institution or universities meet the challenge? It would require a significant commitment to provide training for faculty staff, to provide resources. Unless substantial effort is made on the part of universities, teacher educators and trainees alike will be deprived of the joy of using IT.

VARIOUS TRAINING TECHNIQUES

ROLE PLAY
Role-playing game

This article is about games played by playing the role of a character. See computer role-playing game and console role-playing game for their electronic counterparts.
A role-playing game (RPG, often roleplaying game) is a type of game in which the participants assume the roles of fictional characters and collaboratively create or follow stories. Participants determine the actions of their characters based on their characterization, and the actions succeed or fail according to a formal system of rules and guidelines. Within the rules, players can improvise freely; their choices shape the direction and outcome of the games.
A role-playing game rarely has winners or losers. That makes role-playing games fundamentally different from board games, card games, sports and most other types of games. Role-playing games are typically more collaborative and social than competitive.[1] A typical role-playing game unifies its participants into a single team, known as a "party", that plays as a group. Like serials or novel sequences, these episodic games are often played in weekly sessions over a period of months or even years, although some gamers prefer playing one session games.
Role-playing games are a form of interactive and collaborative storytelling. Like novels or films, role-playing games appeal because they engage the imagination. Interactivity is the crucial difference between role-playing games and traditional fiction. Whereas a viewer of a television show is a passive observer, a player at a roleplaying game makes choices that propel the action. Such role-playing games extend an older tradition of storytelling games where a small party of friends collaborates on a unique adventure.
While simple forms of roleplaying exist in traditional children's games such as "cops and robbers", "cowboys and Indians" and "playing house", role-playing games add a level of sophistication and persistence to this basic idea. Instead, participants in a roleplaying game will generate specific characters and an ongoing plot. A consistent system of rules and realistic campaign setting in games aids suspension of disbelief. The level of realism in games ranges from just enough internal consistency to set up a believable story or credible challenge to full-blown simulations of real-world processes.
Computer games incorporating settings and game mechanics found in roleplaying games are referred to as computer role-playing games, or CRPGs. Due to the popularity of CRPGs, the terms "role-playing game" and "RPG" have both to some degree been co-opted by the computer gaming industry; as a result, traditional non-digital pastimes of this sort are increasingly being referred to as "pen and paper" or "tabletop" role-playing games, though neither pen and paper nor a table are strictly necessary.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Varieties
2.1 Live-action
2.2 Electronic media
2.3 Freeform
3 Game systems
3.1 Statistics
3.2 Character creation
4 Campaign settings
5 Publishers
5.1 Business Models
5.2 Publishing Associations
5.3 Indie publishers
6 References
7 See also
8 External links
8.1 Lists and reviews
8.2 Community
History
Main article: History of role-playing games
The assumption of roles was a central theme in some early 20th century activities such as the game Jury Box, mock trials, model legislatures, and "Theatre Games". In the 1960s, historical reenactment groups such as The Sealed Knot and the Society for Creative Anachronism began to perform "creative history" reenactments introducing fantasy elements, and in the 1970s fantasy wargames were developed, inspired by sword and sorcery fiction, in which each player controlled only a single unit, or "character". The earlier role-playing tradition was combined with the wargames' rule-based character representation to form the first role-playing games.[1][2]
The first commercially available role-playing game, Dungeons & Dragons, was published in 1974 by E. Gary Gygax's TSR. TSR marketed the game as a niche product. Gygax expected to sell about 50,000 copies.[3] After establishing itself in boutique stores it developed a cult following.
Dungeons & Dragons was a subject of controversy in the 1980s when well-publicized opponents claimed it caused negative spiritual and psychological effects. Academic research has discredited these claims.[4] Some educators support role-playing games as a healthy way to hone reading and arithmetic skills.[5] Though role-playing has been accepted by some,[6] a few religious conservatives continue to object.[7]
Games such as GURPS and Champions also served to introduce to role-playing games game balance between player characters; later, Vampire: The Masquerade and similar games served to emphasise storytelling and plot and character development over rules and combat.
Competition from computer role-playing games and collectible card games led to a decline in the role-playing game industry. The financially troubled market leader TSR, Inc. was eventually purchased by Wizards of the Coast.[8] To better cope with the economics of role-playing games, and to combat growing bootlegging problems, they introduced a new regime of open gaming, allowing other companies to publish D&D-compatible supplements. Meanwhile, self-defined "Indie roleplaying" communities arose on the internet, studying roleplaying and developing several forms of role-playing game theory such as GNS Theory, and critical reflection on role-playing games has become popular in Scandinavia leading even to a yearly academic conference.
In thirty years the genre has grown from a few hobbyists and boutique publishers to an economically significant part of the games industry. Grass-roots and small business involvement remains substantial while larger projects have attracted several million players worldwide. Games industry leader Hasbro purchased Wizards of the Coast in 1998 for an estimated $325 million.[9]
Varieties
Most role-playing games are conducted like radio drama: only the spoken component is acted, and players step out of character to describe action and discuss game mechanics. The genre of role-playing games in which players do perform their characters' physical actions is known as live-action roleplaying games (LARP).
In traditional roleplaying games, participants usually sit around a table and conduct the game as a small social gathering. One participant, the "gamemaster", describes the setting and the actions of the inhabitants, while the others describe their characters' actions and responses. The game system typically requires players to roll dice to determine the outcome of some of their actions, most typically in combat or other stressful situations. Games that emphasize plot and character interaction over game mechanics and combat sometimes prefer the name storytelling game.
Live-action
A Live action roleplaying game (LARP), is played more like improvisational theatre. Instead of describing their characters' actions, participants act out their characters' actions, often in costume. Further, the players' environment is used to represent the imaginary environment of the game world.
LARPs de-emphasize die rolls and rulebook references. Theatre-style live action roleplaying games often use rock-paper-scissors or direct comparison of attributes to resolve conflicts, while "boffer" games use padded weaponry to simulate real combat. LARPs vary in size from a handful of players to several thousands, and in duration from a couple of hours to whole weeks.[10]
Electronic media
The challenge of producing a video game with which players can interact through roleplaying, rather than simply a framework within they can interact with each other, is yet to be answered. Computer imitations of role-playing games instead incorporate role-playing game elements into a man-to-man wargame. It has so far proved impossible to recreate the depth, flexibility, teamwork, and characterisation of traditional gaming.
Nonetheless, computers and other electronic media are not unknown in role-playing. Computer-assisted role-playing games blend elements of traditional roleplaying with computer gaming. Computers are used for recordkeeping and sometimes to resolve combat, while the participants generally make decisions concerning character interaction. This may include tools used to facilitate traditional pen & paper games to be played over the internet. Such tools may be nothing more than an IRC program, but there is also specialised software which includes built-in functions for dice, character sheets, mapping, and such (e.g., OpenRPG).
Some role-playing games use the internet as their medium. Online text-based role-playing games, in which players interact through a text-based medium rather than face-to-face, are popular on the internet. Some games are played in a turn-based fashion, whether play-by-mail games using email, or play-by-post games on internet forums. Others are played in a more real-time way, similar to offline games, over TELNET or IRC; these are known as MUDs. Finally, some people use internet chat clients or dedicated virtual tabletop software to play what would otherwise be a simple pencil-and-paper RPG.
Freeform
Freeform roleplaying games are played with minimal or no formal rules and a greater focus on character or plot development, with the organisers as referees. Most freeform games are also live-action games, though they exist in both traditional and computer-assisted forms. Freeform games are most often seen at gaming conventions, though they are also sometimes run by gaming clubs or a dedicated team of independent GMs.
Game systems
Main article: role-playing game system
The set of rules of a role-playing game is known as its game system; the rules themselves are known as game mechanics. Although there are game systems which are shared by many games, for example the d20 system, many games have their own, custom rules system.
Almost all roleplaying games require the participation of a gamemaster (GM), who creates a setting for the game session, portrays most of its inhabitants and acts as the moderator and rules arbitrator for the players. The rest of the participants create and play inhabitants of the game setting, known as player characters (PCs). The player characters collectively are known as a "party".
During a typical game session, the gamemaster will introduce a story goal for the players to achieve through the actions of their characters. Frequently, this involves interacting with non-player characters, other denizens of the game world, which are played by the gamemaster. Many game sessions contain moments of puzzle solving, negotiation, chases, and combat. The goal may be made clear to the players at the outset, or may become clear to them during the course of a game.
Games rules determine the success or failure of a character's actions. Many game systems use weighted statistics and dice rolls or other random elements. In most systems, the gamemaster uses the rules to determine a target number. The player rolls dice, trying to get a result either more than or less than the target number, depending on the game system. Not all games determine successes randomly, however; an early and popular game without random elements is Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game by Erick Wujcik (1990).
Most systems are tied to the setting of the game they feature in. However, some universal role-playing game systems can be adapted to any genre. The first game to feature such a system, GURPS, is accompanied by a number of sourcebooks which allow games to be created in different genres. The d20 system, based on the older role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, is used in many modern games such as Spycraft and the Star Wars Roleplaying Game.
In practice, even universal systems are often biased toward a specific style or genre and adaptable to others. For example, although the d20 system has sourcebooks for modern and futuristic settings, most published d20 system material stays within Dungeons & Dragons' combat-focused fantasy milieu.
Statistics
Main article: Statistic (role-playing games)
Characters in roleplaying games are usually represented by a number of statistics. Statistics are an abstract measure of how successful a character is likely to be at a class of tasks. Many game systems make distinctions between two key types of statistic: attributes and skills. These names are not at all consistently across different games, however.
Attributes are statistics all characters possess: strength, agility, and intelligence are common examples. These are ranked, often on a numeric scale, so that a player can gauge the character's capabilities. For example, a character's strength rating could be used to determine the likelihood that the character can lift a certain weight.
Skills are abilities that only some characters possess, such as negotiation, horseback riding, and marksmanship. Game systems often define skills that are genre-appropriate. For example, Asian adventures commonly emphasize martial arts. Fantasy settings include magic. Science-fiction settings may contain psionics. However, some skills are found in several genres: a medieval rogue and a Wild West outlaw may both be very proficient at throwing knives.
Character creation
Main article: Character creation
Before play begins, players develop a concept of the role they would like to play in the game. They then use the game system's character creation rules to form a representation of their characters, in terms of game mechanics. The character's statistics are recorded on a special-purpose form called a character sheet. Some systems, such as that of Feng Shui, require characters to choose from a set of prebuilt template characters with only a small amount of customisation allowed. Others, like the d20 System, use character classes to define most character concepts, but allow some freedom with the statistics within those classes. Still others, such as GURPS, allow the player to create their own character concepts by freely assigning statistics.
Game statistics are not a substitute for a character concept. For example, one Wild West gunfighter may become a quick drawing revolver marksman, whereas another with similar game statistics could be a mounted rifle expert.
Template-based systems have the advantage of easy and quick character creation. It also gives means the gamemaster spends less time approving each character for play. The sacrifice is in flexibility and concept. Templates are essentially pre-built characters that are balanced against each other and pre-approved by the game companies.
Class-based systems give slightly more freedom but still require a player to choose from a set number of roles for their character. The character's powers are generally set by the character class, but the specific statistics are assigned by the player.
Character point-based systems allow complete freedom of concept. The downside is that character creation is, in many cases, much more complex and the GMs have to spend a lot more time examining and approving each character concept.
A few games allow freeform character creation. Characteristics are simply assigned as a player sees fit, and the final result is submitted to the GM or group for approval. Freeform character creation can be implemented in any game system, but is only rarely the prescribed or assumed method.
Campaign settings
Main article: Campaign setting
Each game is set in a fictional world in which adventures and campaigns can take place. Usually a campaign setting is designed for a specific game (such as the Forgotten Realms setting for Dungeons & Dragons) or a specific genre of game (such as Medieval fantasy, or outer space/science fiction adventure). There are numerous campaign settings available both in print and online. In addition to published campaign settings available for purchase, many game masters create their own.
Campaign settings exist for almost all genres of fiction; however, because the world's most popular roleplaying game, Dungeons & Dragons, is part of the fantasy genre, fantasy is also the most played roleplaying genre. RPGs of the fantasy genre are sometimes collectivelly called "Fantasy roleplaying games" ("FRP").
The use of the term "world" in describing a campaign setting is loose, at best. Campaign worlds such as the World of Greyhawk detail entire cosmologies and timelines of thousands of years, while the setting of a game such as Deadlands might only describe one nation within a brief segment of alternate history.
There are three primary types of campaign setting. The first exists in genre- and setting-specific role-playing games such as Warhammer or World of Darkness which exist specifically within one setting. The second type of setting is for games that have multiple settings such as modern Dungeons & Dragons or those that were developed specifically to be independent of setting such as GURPS. The final type of setting is developed without being tied to a particular game system. Typically this last sort are developed first as stand-alone works of fiction, which are later adapted to one or more role playing systems such as the Star Wars universe or Middle-earth.
The range of genres represented by published settings is vast, and includes nearly all genres of fiction. Role-playing's roots began in fantasy, science fiction has been used in settings such as Traveller, and horror formed the baseline of the World of Darkness. Even modern-day spy thriller-oriented settings such as Spycraft have been introduced.
A small number of campaign settings fuse multiple genres into a single game. GURPS Infinite Worlds, for example, the characters play "Infinity Patrol" agents who travel to alternate worlds.
Publishers
Main article: List of publishers of role-playing games
The largest publisher of tabletop role-playing games is Wizards of the Coast , a wholly owned subsidiary of Hasbro and publisher of Dungeons & Dragons, the D20 Star Wars RPG, and a number of smaller D20 titles. Most analysts give White Wolf the second largest industry marketshare, with the company itself claiming an average marketshare of 22% since 1991 [1]. Most roleplaying game publishers are privately held companies and do not release sales figures, making precise estimates difficult. There has been no publically available, systematic examination of point of sale data, limiting further estimates to a rough consensus between industry analysts whose conclusions are often controversial.
Market research conducted at Wizards of the Coast in 1999-2000 indicated that more than 1.5 million people played D&D on a monthly basis, and about 2 million people played all tabletop RPGs combined on a monthly basis. The success of the 3rd Edition of Dungeons & Dragons likely resulted in an increase in those totals. These figures for play are substantially larger than the figures for sales. In 2006, non-Dungeons & Dragons tabletop RPGs in the upper echelons of sales typically generated between five and ten thousand unit sales. Most commercially published RPGs are essentially vanity press products, having less than a thousand units sold.
Business Models
Main article: Publishers (role-playing games)
Role-playing games are produced under a variety of business models which succeed or fail based on those models' objectives. The smallest viable businesses are one person companies that produce games using print on demand and e-book technologies. Most of these companies provide a secondary income for their owner-operators. Many of these businesses employ freelancers, but some do not; their owners complete every aspect of the product. Larger companies may have a small office staff that manages publishing, brand development and freelance work. Guided by a developer/manager, freelancers produce most of a game line's content according to a central plan. Finally, a few companies (such Wizards of the Coast and Mongoose Publishing) maintain an in-house writing and design staff.
The standard business model for successful tabletop RPGs relies on multiple sales avenues:
the so-called three-tier distribution model, under which the company sells products to distributors who in turn sell the products to retailers who sell to customers. This is traditionally divided into the hobby trade (used by the majority of print publishers) and the book trade (viable for a smaller number of companies able to absorb returns and provide sufficiently large print runs). The industry consensus is that hobby retail sales are have grealy declined, with the balance of hobby games sales moving from RPGs to miniatures games and collectable card games
direct sales via the internet, through an online retailer or through the company's own electric storefront.
electronic sales and distribution, either without any physical product at all (e-books) or through a POD service. Once limited to small companies, this sales venue is now employed by publishers of al sizes.
Typically, RPG publishers have a very long lifecycle once they manage to generate an initial successful game. TSR, the initial publisher of Dungeons & Dragons was an independent entity until 1997 when it was acquired by Wizards of the Coast, who was subsequently acquired by Hasbro in 1999. Many of TSR's contemporaries remain in business as independent publishers. The core design group of a publisher is often kept as a team within the new company for the purposes of continuity and productivity, though layoffs are common after such mergers and acquisitions. For example, Wizards of the Coast experienced multiple layoffs in the wake of acquiring Last Unicorn Games and after its own acquisition by Hasbro.
Publishing Associations
Main article: Publishers (role-playing games)
The Game Publishers Association (GPA) was formed to assist adventure game publishers. The stated goals of the GPA include facilitation of communication between game publishers and others in the gaming community and promotion of the adventure gaming industry as a whole. [11] The GPA maintains a member database, publishes a mailing list, and offers a "press exploder" tool which issues press releases to game-related outlets. The association guidelines are published on the organization's website. [12]
Indie publishers
Main article: Indie role-playing game
Indie games are produced by a self-identified independent games community. The indie roleplaying game community often produces games with signature and idiosyncratic character. Some indie publishers often eschew the three-tier distribution model and sell directly online and at conventions, but many do use distribution services. The line between "indie" publishers and "mainstream" publishers is hazy at best. Varying definitions require that commercial, design, or conceptual elements of the game stay under the control of the creator, or that the game should just be produced outside of a corporate environment. The very validity of the indie label is disputed, with detractors claiming these designers are either amateurs or simply very small press businesses.

GROUP DISCUSSION as a part of active learning technique
Active learning, as the name suggests, is a type of instruction which some teachers employ to involve pupils during the learning process. Associated with the term "learning by doing", "active learning" is often contrasted with less active forms of instruction (e.g. lecture -- Bonwell and Eison, 1991).
It has been suggested that students who actively engage with the material are more likely to recall information later and be able to use that information in different contexts (Bruner, 1961).
This article is about an educational technique.
Contents
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1 Conducting "active learning" instruction
2 When should "active learning" based instruction be used?
2.1 "Active learning" instruction
2.2 Active learning and Policy
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Conducting "active learning" instruction
Discovery learning, Problem-based learning, Experiential learning, and Inquiry-based instruction are the most often cited forms of active learning (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006). Problem-based learning is one of the most valued types (Sweller, 1988).
All of these knowledge acquiring strategies assume that the learning process must be, essentially, learner driven, which does not mean that it can dispense guidance. Active learning does not presuppose the idea that student's development must be allowed to flower on its own, in a permissive environment, without teacher intervention. Learning without the advantage of a mentor is a slow and frustrating way to learn (Vygotsky, 2006). Teachers must provide challenges, encourage risk taking, correct errors, and provide context.
Adopting active learning does not mean, also, following highly structured methods, like the ones mentioned above, or even completely eliminating the lecture format (Bonwell and Eison, 1991). Activities that encourage student involvement are easily incorporated into a lesson plan.
Example "active" activities include: class discussion, small group discussion, debate, posing questions to the class, think-pair-share activities, short written exercises and polling the class (Bonwell and Eison, 1991).
A class discussion may be held in person or in an online environment. It is best that these discussions be centered on a somewhat controversial topic (e.g. one that has no right or wrong answer).
A small group discussion is a similar activity between individual, groups, or teams of individuals. A presidential debate is a common debate format. But these also may center around controversial or political topic.
A think-pair-share activity is when learners take a minute to ponder the previous lesson, later to discuss it with one or more of their peers, finally to share it with the class a part of a formal discussion.
A short written exercise that is often used is the "one minute paper." In this exercise students are asked to summarize the day's discussion in a short paper to be turned in before the end of class. This is a good way to review materials.
When should "active learning" based instruction be used?
Active learning is an umbrella term that refers to several models of instruction which focus the responsibility of learning, on learners. Bonwell and Eison (1991) popularized this approach to teaching. This "buzz word" of the 1980s, became their 1990s report to the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE).
In this report they discuss a variety of methodologies for promoting "active learning." According to Mayer (2004) strategies like “active learning" developed out of the work of an earlier group of theorists -- those promoting discovery learning.
The effectiveness of active instructional techniques like discovery learning has been questioned in recent years. While it makes sense to use these techniques as a "followup" exercise, it does not make sense to use them to introduce material. It is suggested that instructors guide their students in the early stages of learning, and later let them practice there new learned skills or apply new information.
Learning is typically referred to as Schema (psychology) acquisition. The problem with schema acquisition is that it does not happen automatically. Certainly practice is a necessity for learning to occur (given procedural learning). But should practice happen before, or even during initial learning? Those promoting ‘Active learning’ strategies assume learners need little guidance. Certainly some guidance is necessary for learning to occur and self-guidance can be productive in some instances, but only after initial learning has occurred. Unfortunately self-guided instruction is less than efficient than guided instruction (Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006).
"Active learning" instruction
While practice is useful to reinforce learning, problem solving is not always suggested. Sweller (1988) suggests that under some conditions, solving problems can even have negative influence on learning, instead he suggests that learners should study worked-examples because this is a more efficient method of initial instruction.
Adopting active learning does not mean following highly structured methods, like Problem-based learning. Unfortunately some instructors develop unguided course activities and expect learners to learn from these experiences. Bonwell and Eison (1991) suggests learners work in pairs, discuss material while role-playing, to debate, to case study, take part in cooperative learning, or produce short written exercises, etc. While these activities may be motivating for learners, these unguided situations can in fact leave learners less competent than when they began the activity (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006). So instructors are cautioned to give learners some basic or initial instruction, perhaps to be followed up with an activity based upon the above methods.
Active learning and Policy
Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) suggest that fifty years of empirical data does not support those using active learning methods early in the learning process. Kirschner et al (2006) calls for those using these techniques to explain their actions in terms of empirical data. In the past few years Outcome-based education policy has begun to limit instructors to only using those techniques that have been shown to be effective. In the United States for instance, the No Child Left Behind Act requires those developing instruction to show evidence of its "effectiveness".
Policy may be satisfied by demonstrating the instructional effectiveness of active instruction. Rubrics (education) are a good way to evaluate this form of instruction. These instructional tools can be used to describe the various different qualities of any activity. In addition, if given to the student, they can provide additional guidance (here is an example rubric).

BRAIN STORMING
Brainstorming is a group creativity technique that was designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution of a problem. The method originated in a 1953 book called Applied Imagination by Alex Faickney Osborn, an advertising executive. Osborn proposed that groups could double their creative output by using the method of brainstorming.[1]
Although brainstorming has become a popular group technique, researchers have generally failed to find evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing either quantity or quality of ideas generated. Because of such problems as distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, and production blocking, brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. [2] [3] [4] For this reason, there have been numerous attempts to improve brainstorming or replace it with more effective variations of the basic technique.
Although traditional brainstorming may not increase the productivity of groups, it has other potential benefits, such as enhancing the enjoyment of group work and improving morale. It may also serve as a useful exercise for team building.
Contents
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1 Approach
2 Outline of the method
2.1 Set the problem
2.2 Create a background memo
2.3 Select participants
2.4 Create a list of lead questions
2.5 Session conduct
2.6 The process
3 Variations
3.1 Nominal group technique
3.2 Group passing technique
3.3 Team idea mapping method
3.4 Electronic brainstorming
4 Conclusion
5 See also
6 External links
7 References
Approach
There are four basic rules in brainstorming.[5] These are intended to reduce the social inhibitions that occur in groups and therefore stimulate the generation of new ideas. The expected result is a dynamic synergy that will dramatically increase the creativity of the group.
Focus on quantity: This rule is a means of enhancing divergent production, aiming to facilitate problem solving through the maxim, quantity breeds quality. The assumption is that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a radical and effective solution.
No criticism: It is often emphasized that in group brainstorming, criticism should be put 'on hold'. Instead of immediately stating what might be wrong with an idea, the participants focus on extending or adding to it, reserving criticism for a later 'critical stage' of the process. By suspending judgment, one creates a supportive atmosphere where participants feel free to generate unusual ideas.
Unusual ideas are welcome: To get a good and long list of ideas, unusual ideas are welcomed. They may open new ways of thinking and provide better solutions than regular ideas. They can be generated by looking from another perspective or setting aside assumptions.
Combine and improve ideas: Good ideas can be combined to form a single very good idea, as suggested by the slogan "1+1=3". This approach is assumed to lead to better and more complete ideas than merely generating new ideas alone. It is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a process of association.


Diagram of a brainstorming session
Outline of the method
Set the problem
One of the most important things to do before a session is to define the problem. The problem must be clear, not too big, and captured in a definite question such as “What service for mobile phones is not available now, but needed?“. If the problem is too big, the chairman should divide it into smaller components, each with its own question. Some problems are multi-dimensional and non-quantified, for example “What are the aspects involved in being a successful entrepreneur”. Finding solutions for this kind of problem can be done with morphological analysis.
Create a background memo
The background memo is the invitation and informational letter for the participants, containing the session name, problem, time, date, and place. The problem is described in the form of a question, and some example ideas are given. The ideas are solutions to the problem, and used when the session slows down or goes off-track. The memo is sent to the participants at least two days in advance, so that they can think about the problem beforehand.
Select participants
The chairman composes the brainstorming panel, consisting of the participants and an idea collector. Ten or fewer group members are generally more productive than larger groups. Many variations are possible but the following composition is suggested.
Several core members of the project who have proved themselves.
Several guests from outside the project, with affinity to the problem.
One idea collector who records the suggested ideas.
Create a list of lead questions
During the brainstorm session the creativity may decrease. At this moment, the chairman should stimulate creativity by suggesting a lead question to answer, such as Can we combine these ideas? or How about a look from another perspective?. It is advised to prepare a list of such leads before the session begins.
Session conduct
The chairman leads the brainstorming session and ensures that the basic rules are followed. The activities of a typical session are:
A warm-up session, to expose novice participants to the criticism-free environment. A simple problem is brainstormed, for example What should be the next corporate Christmas present? or What can be improved in Microsoft Windows?.
The chairman presents the problem and gives a further explanation if needed.
The chairman asks the brainstorming panel for their ideas.
If no ideas are coming out, the chairman suggests a lead to encourage creativity.
Every participant presents his or her idea, and the idea collector records them.
If more than one participant has ideas, the chairman lets the most associated idea be presented first. This selection can be done by looking at the body language of the participants, or just by asking for the most associated idea.
The participants try to elaborate on the idea, to improve the quality.
When time is up, the chairman organizes the ideas based on the topic goal and encourages discussion. Additional ideas may be generated.
Ideas are categorized.
The whole list is reviewed to ensure that everyone understands the ideas. Duplicate ideas and obviously infeasible solutions are removed.
The chairman thanks all participants and gives each a token of appreciation.


Process of conducting a brainstorming session
The process
Participants who have an idea but no possibility to present it are encouraged to write down their idea and present it later.
The idea collector should number the ideas, so that the chairman can use the number to encourage quantitative idea generation, for example: We have 44 ideas now, let’s get it to 50!.
The idea collector should repeat the idea in the words he or she has written it, to confirm that it expresses the meaning intended by the originator.
When more participants are having ideas, the one with the most associated idea should have priority. This to encourage elaboration on previous ideas.
During the brainstorming session the attendance of managers and superiors is strongly discouraged, as it may inhibit and reduce the effect of the four basic rules, especially the generation of unusual ideas.
Variations
Nominal group technique
The nominal group technique is a type of brainstorming that encourages all participants to have an equal say in the process. It is also used to generate a ranked list of ideas.
Participants are asked to write down their ideas anonymously. Then the moderator collects the ideas and each is voted on by the group. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation.
After distillation, the top ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-evaluated the ideas.
It is important for the moderator to have received training in this process before attempting to take on the moderating task. The group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts, it may take a few practice sessions to train the team in the method before tackling the important ideas.
Group passing technique
Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next person in a clockwise direction, who adds some thoughts. This is repeated until everybody gets their original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea.
A popular alternative to this technique is to create an "Idea Book" and post a distribution list or routing slip to the front of the book. On the inside cover (or first page) is a description of the problem. The first person to receive the book lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. follow-up "read out" meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes longer, but allows individual thought whenever the person has time to think deeply about the problem.
Team idea mapping method
This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees participate and no ideas are rejected.
The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant creates an individual brainstorm around the topic. All the ideas are then merged into one large idea map. During this consolidation phase, the participants may discover a common understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. As the sharing takes place, new ideas may arise by the association. Those ideas are added to the map as well. Then ideas are generated on both individual and group levels. Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and/or take action.
Electronic brainstorming
Electronic brainstorming is done via email. The chairman or facilitator sends the question out to group members, and they contribute independently by sending their ideas directly back to the facilitator. The facilitator then compiles a list of ideas and sends it back to the group for further feedback. Electronic brainstorming eliminates many of the problems of standard brainstorming, such as production blocking and evaluation apprehension. An additional advantage of this method is that all ideas can be archived electronically in their original form, and then retrieved later for further thought and discussion. Electronic brainstorming also enables much larger groups to brainstorm on a topic than would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session.
Conclusion
Brainstorming is a popular method of group interaction in both educational and business settings. Although it does not appear to provide a measurable advantage in creative output, brainstorming is an enjoyable exercise that is typically well received by participants. Newer variations of brainstorming seek to overcome barriers like production blocking and may well prove superior to the original technique. How well these newer methods work, and whether or not they should still be classified as brainstorming, are questions that require further research before they can be answered.CASE STUDY
A case study is a learning tool, a research strategy, sometimes likened to an experiment, a history, or a simulation, though not linked to any particular type of evidence or method of data collection (Yin 2003). It is qualitative research, as isn't often confused by laymen.
Rather than using large samples and following a rigid protocol to examine a limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses (Flyvbjerg, 2006).
Yin, on the other hand, suggests that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research means single- and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. He notes that case studies should not be confused with qualitative research and points out that they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence (Yin, 2002). This is also supported and well-formulated in (Lamnek, 2005): "The case study is a research approach, situated between concrete data taking technique and methodologic paradigma".
Contents
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1 The scope and relevance of case studies
2 Types of case study
2.1 Illustrative case studies
2.2 Exploratory case studies
2.3 Critical instance case studies
2.4 Program implementation case studies
2.5 Program effects case studies
2.6 Prospective case studies
2.7 Cumulative case studies
2.8 Narrative case studies
2.9 Medical case studies
2.10 Embedded case studies
3 Case selection
4 Generalizing from case studies
5 History of the case study
6 Conclusions
7 Sources and further readings
The scope and relevance of case studies
Certain disciplines thrive on case studies: others find them less suitable in given situations. Compare usage and perceived validity in the humanities, natural sciences, social sciences, pseudoscience and business.
Rogers, in Business Analysis for Marketing Managers (1978) distinguishes case studies from case histories and projects. He describes a case history as an event or series of events set in an organizational framework with or without a related environment. The events are described in some detail with the main and subsidiary points highlighted. Actions taken by subjects in the case are described; reactions, responses and effects on other subjects are related, and events taken to a conclusion or to a point that is irreversible. Medical cases are typical of the category. Symptoms are described, probable and possible causes suggested, treatment recommended, prognosis recorded, and the date when the patient was discharged or buried.
He defined the case study as also describing events in a framework within an environment. The problems are not always highlighted or even made clear; they emerge as the case material is subjected to analysis. A conclusion is not necessarily stated nor is the situation reached in the case irreversible. It is usually possible to ‘take over’ operations at a suitable point in the role of an external adviser or from a position in the case. Most business cases fall into this category. .
The case project is a series of diverse continuous events, set in an organizational framework and normally in a well-defined environment. Those studying the case are led to a specific point in time and circumstance where they become a ‘participant’ in the case. They may be asked to assume the role of a person in the case, appointed to a particular vacancy, or to advise from the position of an external consultant. The role is made explicit and it is from that viewpoint that analysis, views, arguments and recommendations must be made; there is thus a behavioural aspect introduced. If placed in the position of a newly appointed middle manager, responses and suggestions are likely to be different from those of an external consultant. Rogers developed the case project in 1966 for the Chartered Institute of Marketing’s diploma final open book examination. To avoid pre-prepared scripts being submitted, the examination paper progressed the case by several months from when it was published, introducing new material. This required candidate to modify the analyses and conclusions already reached and write a true examination room report.
Types of case study
Illustrative case studies
Illustrative case studies describe a domain; they use one or two instances to analyze a situation. This helps interpret other data, especially when researchers have reason to believe that readers know too little about a program. These case studies serve to make the unfamiliar familiar, and give readers a common language about the topic. The chosen site should typify important variations and contain a small number of cases to sustain readers' interest.
The presentation of illustrative case studies may involve some pitfalls. Such studies require presentation of in-depth information on each illustration; but the researcher may lack time on-site for in-depth examination. The most serious problem involves the selection of instances. The case(s) must adequately represent the situation or program. Where significant diversity exists, no single individual site may cover it.
Exploratory case studies
Exploratory case studies condense the case study process: researchers may undertake them before implementing a large-scale investigation. Where considerable uncertainty exists about program operations, goals, and results, exploratory case studies help identify questions, select measurement constructs, and develop measures; they also serve to safeguard investment in larger studies.
The greatest pitfall in the exploratory study involves premature conclusions: the findings may seem convincing enough for inappropriate release as conclusions. Other pitfalls include the tendency to extend the exploratory phase, and inadequate representation of diversity.
Critical instance case studies
Critical instance case studies examine one or a few sites for one of two purposes. A very frequent application involves the examination of a situation of unique interest, with little or no interest in generalizability. A second, rarer, application entails calling into question a highly generalized or universal assertion and testing it by examining one instance. This method particularly suits answering cause-and-effect questions about the instance of concern.
Inadequate specification of the evaluation question forms the most serious pitfall in this type of study. Correct application of the critical instance case study crucially involves probing the underlying concerns in a request.
Program implementation case studies
Program implementation case studies help discern whether implementation complies with intent. These case studies may also prove useful when concern exists about implementation problems.
Program effects case studies
Program effects case studies can determine the impact of programs and provide inferences about reasons for success or failure.
Prospective case studies
In a prospective case study design, the researcher formulates a set of theory-based hypotheses in respect to the evolution of an on-going social or cultural process and then tests these hypotheses at a pre-determined follow-up time in the future by comparing these hypotheses with the observed process outcomes using "pattern matching" or a similar technique.
Cumulative case studies
Cumulative case studies aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The cumulative case study can have a retrospective focus, collecting information across studies done in the past, or a prospective outlook, structuring a series of investigations for different times in the future.

Narrative case studies
Case studies that present findings in a narrative format are called narrative case studies. This involves presenting the case study as events in an unfolding plot with actors and actions.
Medical case studies
In medical science case studies are considered "Class V" evidence, and are thus the least suggestive of all forms of medical evidence.

Embedded case studies
A case study containing more than one sub-unit of analysis is referred to as an embedded case study (Yin, 2002).
Case selection
When selecting a case for a case study, researchers often use information-oriented sampling, as opposed to random sampling . This is because the typical or average case is often not the richest in information. Extreme or atypical cases often reveal more information because they activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in the situation studied. In addition, from both an understanding-oriented and an action-oriented perspective, it is often more important to clarify the deeper causes behind a given problem and its consequences than to describe the symptoms of the problem and how frequently they occur. Random samples emphasizing representativeness will seldom be able to produce this kind of insight; it is more appropriate to select some few cases chosen for their validity.
The following three types of information-oriented cases may be distinguished: (1) Extreme or deviant cases, (2) Critical cases, and (3) Paradigmatic cases.
The extreme case can be well-suited for getting a point across in an especially dramatic way, which often occurs for well-known case studies such as Freud’s ‘Wolf-Man.’
A critical case can be defined as having strategic importance in relation to the general problem. For example, an occupational medicine clinic wanted to investigate whether people working with organic solvents suffered brain damage. Instead of choosing a representative sample among all those enterprises in the clinic’s area that used organic solvents, the clinic strategically located a single workplace where all safety regulations on cleanliness, air quality, and the like, had been fulfilled. This model enterprise became a critical case: if brain damage related to organic solvents could be found at this particular facility, then it was likely that the same problem would exist at other enterprises which were less careful with safety regulations for organic solvents. Via this type of strategic sampling, one can save both time and money in researching a given problem. Another example of critical case sampling is the strategic selection of lead and feather for the test of whether different objects fall with equal velocity. The selection of materials provided the possibility to formulate a generalization characteristic of critical cases, a generalization of the sort, ‘If it is valid for this case, it is valid for all (or many) cases.’ In its negative form, the generalization would be, ‘If it is not valid for this case, then it is not valid for any (or only few) cases.’
A paradigmatic case may be defined as an exemplar or prototype. Thomas Kuhn has shown that the basic skills, or background practices, of natural scientists are organized in terms of ‘exemplars’ or 'paradigms' the role of which in the scientific process can be analyzed. Similarly, scholars like Clifford Geertz and Michel Foucault have often organized their research around specific cultural paradigms: a paradigm for Geertz lay for instance in the ‘deep play’ of the Balinese cockfight, while for Foucault, European prisons and the ‘Panopticon’ are examples. Both instances are examples of paradigmatic cases, that is, cases that highlight more general characteristics of the societies or issues in question. Kuhn has shown that scientific paradigms cannot be expressed as rules or theories. There exists no predictive theory for how predictive theory comes about. A scientific activity is acknowledged or rejected as good science by how close it is to one or more exemplars; that is, practical prototypes of good scientific work. A paradigmatic case of how scientists do science is precisely such a prototype. It operates as a reference point and may function as a focus for the founding of schools of thought.

Generalizing from case studies
The case study is effective for generalizing using the type of test that Karl Popper called falsification, which forms part of critical reflexivity .Falsification is one of the most rigorous tests to which a scientific proposition can be subjected: if just one observation does not fit with the proposition it is considered not valid generally and must therefore be either revised or rejected. Popper himself used the now famous example of, "All swans are white," and proposed that just one observation of a single black swan would falsify this proposition and in this way have general significance and stimulate further investigations and theory-building. The case study is well suited for identifying "black swans" because of its in-depth approach: what appears to be "white" often turns out on closer examination to be "black."
For instance, Galileo’s rejection of Aristotle’s law of gravity was based on a case study selected by information-oriented sampling and not random sampling. The rejection consisted primarily of a conceptual experiment and later on of a practical one. These experiments, with the benefit of hindsight, are self-evident. Nevertheless, Aristotle’s incorrect view of gravity dominated scientific inquiry for nearly two thousand years before it was falsified. In his experimental thinking, Galileo reasoned as follows: if two objects with the same weight are released from the same height at the same time, they will hit the ground simultaneously, having fallen at the same speed. If the two objects are then stuck together into one, this object will have double the weight and will according to the Aristotelian view therefore fall faster than the two individual objects. This conclusion seemed contradictory to Galileo. The only way to avoid the contradiction was to eliminate weight as a determinant factor for acceleration in free fall. And that was what Galileo did. Historians of science continue to discuss whether Galileo actually carried out the famous experiment from the leaning tower of Pisa, or whether it is simply a myth. In any event, Galileo’s experimentalism did not involve a large random sample of trials of objects falling from a wide range of randomly selected heights under varying wind conditions, and so on. Rather, it was a matter of a single experiment, that is, a case study, if any experiment was conducted at all.
Galileo’s view continued to be subjected to doubt, however, and the Aristotelian view was not finally rejected until half a century later, with the invention of the air pump. The air pump made it possible to conduct the ultimate experiment, known by every pupil, whereby a coin or a piece of lead inside a vacuum tube falls with the same speed as a feather. After this experiment, Aristotle’s view could be maintained no longer. What is especially worth noting, however, is that the matter was settled by an individual case due to the clever choice of the extremes of metal and feather. One might call it a critical case: for if Galileo’s thesis held for these materials, it could be expected to be valid for all or a large range of materials. Random and large samples were at no time part of the picture. Most skilled scientists simply do not work this way with this type of problem.
By selecting cases strategically in this manner one may arrive at case studies that allow generalization.
For more on generalizing from case studies, see [3]


History of the case study
As a distinct approach to research, use of the case study originated only in the early 20th century. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the phrase case study or case-study back as far as 1934, after the establishment of the concept of a case history in medicine.
The use of case studies for the creation of new theory in social sciences has been further developed by the sociologists Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss who presented their research method, Grounded theory, in 1967.
The popularity of case studies as research tools has developed only in recent decades. One of the areas in which case studies have been gaining popularity is education and in particular educational evaluation. Some of the prominent scholars in educational case study are Robert Stake and Jan Nespor . Case studies have, of course, also been used as a teaching method and as part of professional development. They are well-known in business and legal education. The problem-based learning (PBL) movement is one of the examples. When used in (non-business) education and professional development, case studies are often referred to as critical incidents (see David Tripp in references).
History of Business Cases. - When the Harvard Business School was started, the faculty quickly realized that there were no textbooks suitable to a graduate program in business. Their first solution to this problem was to interview leading practioners of business and to write detailed accounts of what these managers were doing. Of course the professors could not present these cases as practices to be emulated because there were no criteria available for determining what would succeed and what would not succeed. So the professors instructed their students to read the cases and to come to class prepared to discuss the cases and to offer recommendations for appropriate courses of action. Basically that is the model still being used. See a critique of this approach.


Conclusions
The case study offers a method of learning about a complex instance through extensive description and contextual analysis. The product articulates why the instance occurred as it did, and what one might usefully explore in similar situations.
Case studies can generate a great deal of data that may defy straightforward analysis. For details on conducting a case study, especially with regard to data collection and analysis, see the references listed below.

[A1]Dr. K. Rai
(Lecturer-Media Research) , CIET ,NCERT
Prof. P.K. Bhattacharya Joint Director, Central Institute of Educational Technology(CIET), National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)